Hague Convention of 1899

The peace conference was proposed on August 29, 1898 by Russian Tsar Nicholas II.^[3] Nicholas and Count Mikhail Nikolayevich Muravyov, his foreign minister, were instrumental in initiating the conference. It was held from May 18, 1899 and signed on July 29 of that year, and entered into force on September 4, 1900. The Hague Convention of 1899 consisted of four main sections and three additional declarations (the final main section is for some reason identical to the first additional declaration):

• I: Pacific Settlement of International Disputes
• II: Laws and Customs of War on Land
• III: Adaptation to Maritime Warfare of Principles of Geneva Convention of 1864
• IV: Prohibiting Launching of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons
• Declaration I: On the Launching of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons
• Declaration II: On the Use of Projectiles the Object of Which is the Diffusion of Asphyxiating or Deleterious Gases
• Declaration III: On the Use of Bullets Which Expand or Flatten Easily in the Human Body

The main effect of the Convention was to ban the use of certain types of modern technology in war: bombing from the air, chemical warfare, and hollow point bullets. The Convention also set up the Permanent Court of Arbitration.

[edit]Hague Convention of 1907

The second conference, in 1907, was generally a failure, with few major decisions. However, the meeting of major powers did prefigure later 20th-century attempts at international cooperation.

The second conference was called at the suggestion of President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904, but postponed because of the war between Russia and Japan. The Second Peace Conference was held from June 15 to October 18, 1907, to expand upon the original Hague Convention, modifying some parts and adding others, with an increased focus on naval warfare. The British tried to secure limitation of armaments, but were defeated by the other powers, led by Germany, which feared a British attempt to stop the growth of the German fleet. Germany also rejected proposals for compulsory arbitration. However, the conference did enlarge the machinery for voluntary arbitration, and established conventions regulating the collection of debts, rules of war, and the rights and obligations of neutrals.

The Final Agreement was signed on October 18, 1907, and entered into force on January 26, 1910. It consisted of thirteen sections, of which twelve were ratified and entered into force:

• I: The Pacific Settlement of International Disputes
• II: The Limitation of Employment of Force for Recovery of Contract Debts
• III: The Opening of Hostilities
• IV: The Laws and Customs of War on Land
  • includes the Annex on The Qualifications of Belligerents, Chapter II: Prisoners of War
• V: The Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and Persons in Case of War on Land
• VI: The Status of Enemy Merchant Ships at the Outbreak of Hostilities
• VII: The Conversion of Merchant Ships into War-Ships
• VIII: The Laying of Automatic Submarine Contact Mines
• IX: Bombardment by Naval Forces in Time of War
• X: Adaptation to Maritime War of the Principles of the Geneva Convention
• XI: Certain Restrictions with Regard to the Exercise of the Right of Capture in Naval War
• XII: The Creation of an International Prize Court [Not Ratified]^[4]
• XIII: The Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers in Naval War

Two declarations were signed as well:

• Declaration I: extending Declaration II from the 1899 Conference to other types of aircraft^[5]
• Declaration II: on the obligatory arbitration

The Brazilian delegation was led by the statesman Ruy Barbosa, whose contribution was essential for the defense of the principle of legal equality of nations.^[6] The British delegation included the 11th Lord Reay (Donald James Mackay), Sir Ernest Satow and Eyre Crowe. The Russian delegation was led by Fyodor Martens.The Uruguayan delegation was led by José Batlle y Ordóñez, great defender of the compulsory arbitration by creating the idea of an International Court of Arbitration, and an alliance of nations to force the arbitration.

[edit]Geneva Protocol to Hague Convention

Though not negotiated in The Hague, the Geneva Protocol to the Hague Convention is considered an addition to the Convention. Signed on June 17, 1925 and entering into force on February 8, 1928, it permanently bans the use of all forms of chemical and biological warfare in its single section, entitled Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare. The protocol grew out of the increasing public outcry against chemical warfare following the use of mustard gas and similar agents in World War I, and fears that chemical and biological warfare could lead to horrific consequences in any future war. The protocol has since been augmented by the Biological Weapons Convention (1972) and the Chemical Weapons Convention (1993).